franklin d roosevelt role in ww2franklin d roosevelt role in ww2

[33], During his second year of college, he met and proposed to Boston heiress Alice Sohier, who turned him down. The Germans stopped research on nuclear weapons in 1942, choosing to focus on other projects. Hugo Black, and William O. Douglas, were particularly influential in reshaping the jurisprudence of the Court. Biography courtesy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum. FDR implemented a series of projects and programs called the New Deal to stabilize the economy. By the evening of March 4, 32 of the 48 states as well as the District of Columbia had closed their banks. [301], To command the invasion of France, Roosevelt chose General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had successfully commanded a multinational coalition in North Africa and Sicily. [187], An attempt by Louisiana Senator Huey Long to organize a left-wing third party collapsed after Long's assassination in 1935. [245] Responding to Willkie's attacks, Roosevelt promised to keep the country out of the war. [61] Roosevelt in the process became a popular figure among New York Democrats. Recovery meant boosting the economy back to normal, and reform was required of the financial and banking systems. Alternate titles: FDR, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Bullit Professor of History, University of Washington, Seattle, 198186. The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and code named the Argonaut Conference, was held from February 4 to 11, 1945. [21] Franklin then began courting his child-acquaintance and fifth cousin once removed, Eleanor Roosevelt, a niece of Theodore Roosevelt. Assisted by his top aide Harry Hopkins and with very strong national support, he worked closely with British prime minister Winston Churchill, Soviet general secretary Joseph Stalin, and Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in leading the Allied Powers against the Axis Powers. Most important, almost 2,500 men were killed and another 1,000 were wounded. Franklin D. Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882. He spoke while seated in the well of the House, an unprecedented concession to his physical incapacity. . On the first presidential ballot of the convention, Roosevelt received the votes of more than half but less than two-thirds of the delegates, with Smith finishing in a distant second place. "[317] After his death, his widow, Eleanor, continued to be a forceful presence in U.S. and world politics, serving as delegate to the conference which established the United Nations and championing civil rights and liberalism generally. Congress overrode Roosevelt's veto to pass a smaller revenue bill raising $2billion. Find out how he led the United States from. [21] He was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity[24] and the Fly Club,[25] and served as a school cheerleader. [378] Roosevelt has also appeared on several U.S. Postage stamps. Though he had the backing of Treasury Secretary William Gibbs McAdoo and Governor Martin H. Glynn, he faced a formidable opponent in Tammany-Hall's James W. By early 1944 a full medical examination disclosed serious heart and circulatory problems;and although his physicians placed him on a strict regime of diet and medication, the pressures of war and domestic politics weighed heavily on him. [84][85] After Germany signed an armistice in November 1918, Daniels and Roosevelt supervised the demobilization of the Navy. He was diagnosed with polio in 1921, we was 39 at the time. Franklin D. Roosevelt was born in Hyde Park, New York on January 30, 1882. [139], After the convention, Roosevelt won endorsements from several progressive Republicans, including George W. Norris, Hiram Johnson, and Robert La Follette Jr.[144] He also reconciled with the party's conservative wing, and even Al Smith was persuaded to support the Democratic ticket. [45] He was not always aware of when she visited the White House and for some time she could not easily reach him on the telephone without his secretary's help; Roosevelt, in turn, did not visit Eleanor's New York City apartment until late 1944. The isolationist movement was bolstered in the early to mid-1930s by Senator Gerald Nye and others who succeeded in their effort to stop the "merchants of death" in the U.S. from selling arms abroad. 1940 - Axis gains momentum in World War II. [259] Though Churchill pressed for an American declaration of war against Germany, Roosevelt believed that Congress would reject any attempt to bring the United States into the war. [372] Long after his death, new lines of attack criticized Roosevelt's policies regarding helping the Jews of Europe,[373] incarcerating the Japanese on the West Coast,[374] and opposing anti-lynching legislation. [251] With his Four Freedoms speech in January 1941, Roosevelt laid out the case for an Allied battle for basic rights throughout the world. Which pair of leaders is described? ", "Franklin D. Roosevelt Day by Day April", "President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies at 63 in 1945", "President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies at age 63, April 12, 1945", "Immigration, Repatriation, and Deportation: The Mexican-Origin Population in the United States, 19201950", "The Forgotten Repatriation of Persons of Mexican Ancestry and Lessons for the War on Terror", "World War II Enemy Alien Control Program Overview", "FDR defenders enlist TV critics to refute Holocaust film", "Jan Karski, Humanity's hero: The Story of Poland's Wartime Emissary", "Holocaust eyewitness briefs FDR, July 28, 1943", "The 100 Most Influential Figures in American History", "FDR: The President Who Made America Into a Superpower", "New ranking of U.S. presidents puts Lincoln at No. Roosevelt's victory was enabled by the creation of the New Deal coalition, small farmers, the Southern whites, Catholics, big city political machines, labor unions, northern African Americans (southern ones were still disfranchised), Jews, intellectuals, and political liberals. It undertook numerous massive construction projects in cooperation with local governments. On this day in 1940, with France having fallen under Nazi Germany's war machine, President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave his dual policy of U.S. rearmament and aid to a beleaguered Great. However, natives criticized the TVA for displacing thousands of people for these projects. For the second time, Congress reciprocated. The military buildup spurred economic growth. Have Any U.S. Presidents Decided Not to Run For a Second Term? [192], The Supreme Court became Roosevelt's primary domestic focus during his second term after the court overturned many of his programs, including NIRA. Franklin Delano Roosevelt served as President from March 1933 to April 1945, the longest tenure in American history. These measures revived confidence in the economy. [256][257], In August 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill conducted a highly secret bilateral meeting in which they drafted the Atlantic Charter, conceptually outlining global wartime and postwar goals. He undertook immediate actions to initiate his New Deal programs. [139] Roosevelt rallied the progressive supporters of the Wilson administration while also appealing to many conservatives, establishing himself as the leading candidate in the South and West. Peabody remained a strong influence throughout Roosevelt's life, officiating at his wedding and visiting him as president. "[159], Reform of the economy was the goal of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of 1933. Although the Roosevelts agreed to remain together, their relationship ceased to be an intimate one. [299] The Allies launched an invasion of Sicily in July 1943, capturing the island by the end of the following month. [336], Roosevelt's declining physical health had been kept secret from the public. [7][8], Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882, in the Hudson Valley town of Hyde Park, New York, to businessman James Roosevelt I and his second wife, Sara Ann Delano. Roosevelt carried 102 of the country's 106 cities with a population of 100,000 or more. [304], In the opening weeks of the war, Japan conquered the Philippines and the British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia. Every state had its own state parks, and Roosevelt made sure that WPA and CCC projects were set up to upgrade them as well as the national systems. [133] He was elected to a second term by a 14% margin. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the executive order in the 1944 case of Korematsu v. United States. In presidential office from 1933-1945. [191] Roosevelt lost high-income voters, especially businessmen and professionals, but made major gains among the poor and minorities. [42] Franklin contemplated divorcing Eleanor, but Sara objected, and Lucy would not marry a divorced man with five children. Who was the vice president during World War 2? His physical health began declining during the later war years, and less than three months into his fourth term, Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945. Of the fifteen million Americans who served in World War II, more than half benefitted from the educational opportunities provided for in the G.I. Theodore's vigorous leadership style and reforming zeal made him Franklin's role model and hero. During the 1938 election he campaigned against many Democratic opponents, but this backfired when most were reelected to Congress. Editors: Bronfman, Alejanda & Wood, Andrew Grant. Franklin D. Roosevelt took office in 1933, when the nation was reeling from the Great Depression. Industry leaders negotiated the rules with NIRA officials, who suspended antitrust laws in return for better wages. According to biographer Jean Edward Smith, there is no evidence that anyone ever proposed such a campaign to Roosevelt. He did not loosen immigration quotas but did allow German Jews already in the US on visas to stay indefinitely. "[219], The rejection of the Treaty of Versailles in 19191920 marked the dominance of isolationism in American foreign policy. He did, however, appoint a "Black Cabinet" of African American advisers to advise on race relations and African American issues, and he publicly denounced lynching as "murder". The Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941, followed four days later by Germany's and Italy's declarations of war against the United States, brought the nation irrevocably into the war. Roosevelt expected it would be controlled by Washington, Moscow, London and Beijing, and would resolve all major world problems. Not quite 29 when he took his seat in Albany, he quickly won statewide and even some national attention by leading a small group of Democratic insurgents who refused to support Billy Sheehan, the candidate for the United States Senate backed by Tammany Hall, the New York City Democratic organization. In 1924 he nominated Governor Alfred E. Smith of New York for president at the Democratic National Convention, but Smith lost the nomination to John W. Davis. He entered politics in 1910 and was elected to the New York State Senate as a Democrat from his traditionally Republican home district. Pearl Harbor. On December 11, 1941, Hitler and Mussolini declared war on the United States, which responded in kind. In 1928 Smith became the Democratic candidate for president and arranged for Roosevelt's nomination to succeed him as governor of New York. [311] The effort was also hindered by numerous strikes, especially among union workers in the coal mining and railroad industries, which lasted well into 1944. Reynolds, David, and Vladimir Pechatnov, eds. [289], In November 1943, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met to discuss strategy and post-war plans at the Tehran Conference, where Roosevelt met Stalin for the first time. [159] In the November 1938 elections, Democrats lost six Senate seats and 71 House seats, with losses concentrated among pro-New Deal Democrats. Soon after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Congress unanimously declared war on Japan. Pearl Harbor. Known as FDR, Roosevelt was elected President of the United States in 1932, 1936, 1940 and 1944. [381] Roosevelt Island was renamed after Roosevelt in September 1973.[382]. When did Franklin D. Roosevelt get married? [199] Four of Roosevelt's Supreme Court appointees, Felix Frankfurter, Robert H. Jackson, His statements attacked the incumbent and included no other specific policies or programs. Historians and political scientists consider the 193236 elections to be a political realignment. "It is common sense to take a method and try it; if it fails, admit it frankly and try another. In Chicago in 1932, Roosevelt won the nomination as the Democratic Party candidate for president. He won election to the New York State Senate in 1910, and then served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson during World War I. Roosevelt was James M. Cox's running mate on the Democratic Party's 1920 national ticket, but Cox was defeated by Republican Warren G. Harding. He usually appeared in public standing upright, supported on one side by an aide or one of his sons. His administration co-ordinated massive wartime efforts such as the construction of the Pentagon and the Manhattan Project, which saw the creation of the atomic bomb. Roosevelt resolved the dispute by dissolving both agencies. "[255] By July 1941, Roosevelt authorized the creation of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (OCIAA) to counter perceived propaganda efforts in Latin America by Germany and Italy. During the first 100 days of the 73rd U.S. Congress, he spearheaded unprecedented federal legislative productivity. Franklin Roosevelt would have a major impact on the United States economy and people. This was a new beginning in time for Americans known as the New Deal. The G.I. In his ongoing discussions with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and with the American Joint Chiefs of Staff, he had steadily promoted the invasion of the European continent to . The couple's second son, Franklin, died in infancy in 1909. To halt depositor panics, he closed the banks temporarily. By 1939 another World War was on the horizon which prompted the United States to respond by passing a series of laws affirming neutrality and rejecting intervention. [226], Germany annexed Austria in 1938, and soon turned its attention to its eastern neighbors. Omissions? [283], In August 1939, Leo Szilard and Albert Einstein sent the EinsteinSzilrd letter to Roosevelt, warning of the possibility of a German project to develop nuclear weapons. The act did not compel employers to reach an agreement with their employees, but it opened possibilities for American labor. Franklin D. Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945. Domestic politics and relations with Congress were largely shaped by his efforts to achieve total mobilization of the nation's economic, financial, and institutional resources for the war effort. He never submitted it because his wife Eleanor Roosevelt was selected as a judge for the prize. He entered Columbia Law School in 1904 but dropped out in 1907 after passing the New York Bar Examination. Served 3 terms instead of only 2. His foreign policy mirrored Wilsonian ideals which prompted Roosevelt to make his highest postwar priority being the establishment of the United Nations. Before America had joined the war the Allies had suffered many defeats and America was a key to winning the war. [242], A late August poll taken by Gallup found the race to be essentially tied, but Roosevelt's popularity surged in September following the announcement of the Destroyers for Bases Agreement. [49] Another son, James, stated that "there is a real possibility that a romantic relationship existed" between his father and Crown Princess Mrtha of Norway, who resided in the White House during part of World War II. "[204] When the economy began to deteriorate again in mid-1937, during the onset of the recession of 19371938, Roosevelt launched a rhetorical campaign against big business and monopoly power in the United States, alleging that the recession was the result of a capital strike and even ordering the Federal Bureau of Investigation to look for a criminal conspiracy (of which they found none). His third and fourth terms were dominated by World War II, which ended in victory shortly after he died in office. It was also during his Harvard years that he fell in love with Theodore Roosevelts niece, Eleanor Roosevelt, who was then active in charitable work for the poor in New York City. The Japanese plan was simple: Destroy the Pacific Fleet. [288] Concerned that their forces were not yet ready for an invasion of France, Churchill and Roosevelt decided to delay such an invasion until at least 1943 and instead focus on a landing in North Africa, known as Operation Torch. The United States also continued to send aid via the Lend-Lease program to the Soviet Union and other countries. Roosevelt was reelected to the State Senate in 1912, and supported Woodrow Wilson's candidacy at the Democratic National Convention. [349] Many German and Italian citizens were also arrested or placed into internment camps. This experience prepared him for his future role as Commander-in-Chief during World War II. [326], The Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey, the governor of New York, who had a reputation as a liberal in his party. [262], After the German invasion of Poland, the primary concern of both Roosevelt and his top military staff was on the war in Europe, but Japan also presented foreign policy challenges. Roosevelt did not push for the immediate evacuation of Soviet soldiers from Poland, but he won the issuance of the Declaration on Liberated Europe, which promised free elections in countries that had been occupied by Germany. [89] Although his nomination surprised most people, he balanced the ticket as a moderate, a Wilsonian, and a prohibitionist with a famous name. The pact bound each country to defend the others against attack, and Germany, Japan, and Italy became known as the Axis powers. [253] As Roosevelt took a firmer stance against Japan, Germany, and Italy, American isolationists such as Charles Lindbergh and the America First Committee vehemently attacked Roosevelt as an irresponsible warmonger. Franklin Roosevelt's leadership skills guided the United States through two major events in the country's history. [261] This "shoot on sight" policy effectively declared naval war on Germany and was favored by Americans by a margin of 2-to-1. [159] They were forced to liquidate their properties and businesses and interned in hastily built camps in interior, harsh locations. [135] Roosevelt also began an investigation into corruption in New York City among the judiciary, the police force, and organized crime, prompting the creation of the Seabury Commission. Johnson modelled his presidency on Roosevelt's and relied heavily on New Deal lawyer Abe Fortas, as well as James H. Rowe, Anna M. Rosenberg, Thomas Gardiner Corcoran, and Benjamin V. FDRs speech was successful in bringing the United States into World War II because FDR presented facts explaining why war needed to be declared and used righteous indignation. [292], Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met for a second time at the February 1945 Yalta Conference in Crimea. - Franklin D. Roosevelt's Participation During WWII Roosevelt's Involvement in World War II. The Allies formulated strategy in a series of high-profile conferences as well as by contact through diplomatic and military channels. Theodore Roosevelt, the progressive champion who advocated a vastly increased role for the government in the nations economy. After leading the United States through nearly a decade of Depression, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt took on the role of Commander-in-Chief when the United States entered the Second World War. President of the United States from 1933 to 1945, "FDR" redirects here. Although Roosevelt's plan was never made public, he thought about the problem a great deal and incorporated some of his 1924 ideas into the design for the United Nations in 19441945. [115] Roosevelt accused Moses of using the name recognition of prominent individuals including Roosevelt to win political support for state parks, but then diverting funds to the ones Moses favored on Long Island, while Moses worked to block the appointment of Howe to a salaried position as the Taconic commission's secretary. [217] Roosevelt also normalized relations with the Soviet Union, which the United States had refused to recognize since the 1920s. The dispute between Roosevelt and the Court resulted in Roosevelt lobbying for the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937 (or "court packing plan"), which would have expanded the size of the Supreme Court. His death came on the eve of complete military victory in Europe and within months of victory over Japan in the Pacific. [206] Despite their opposition to Roosevelt's domestic policies, many of these conservative Congressmen would provide crucial support for Roosevelt's foreign policy before and during World War II. [22][23], Like most of his Groton classmates, Roosevelt went to Harvard College. [179] The result was a tremendous growth of membership in the labor unions, especially in the mass-production sector. Campaign. Upon his return, Eleanor Roosevelt discovered that her husband had been romantically involved with her social secretary, Lucy Mercer. He was the son of James Roosevelt and Sara Delano Roosevelt. [238] In September 1940, Roosevelt openly defied the Neutrality Acts by reaching the Destroyers for Bases Agreement, which, in exchange for military base rights in the British Caribbean Islands, gave 50 WWI American destroyers to Britain. [71] No strikes occurred during his seven-plus years in the office,[72] as he gained valuable experience in labor issues, wartime management, naval issues, and logistics. This included a reduction in military spending from $752 million in 1932 to $531 million in 1934 and a 40% cut in spending on veterans benefits. For the next three years he practiced law with a prominent New York City law firm. [178], The National Labor Relations Act guaranteed workers the right to collective bargaining through unions of their own choice. [131], When Roosevelt began his run for a second term in May 1930, he reiterated his doctrine from the campaign two years before: "that progressive government by its very terms must be a living and growing thing, that the battle for it is never-ending and that if we let up for one single moment or one single year, not merely do we stand still but we fall back in the march of civilization. [140] His appearance was essential, to show himself as vigorous, despite the ravaging disease that disabled him physically. In a nearly unanimous vote, Congress declared war on Japan. [365] The rapid expansion of government programs that occurred during Roosevelt's term redefined the role of the government in the United States, and Roosevelt's advocacy of government social programs was instrumental in redefining liberalism for coming generations. [137], As the 1932 presidential election approached, Roosevelt turned his attention to national politics, established a campaign team led by Howe and Farley, and a "brain trust" of policy advisers, primarily composed of Columbia University and Harvard University professors. Updated: Mar 12, 2020 But upon entering the campaign in earnest in late September 1944, Roosevelt displayed enough passion and fight to allay most concerns and to deflect Republican attacks. [368], His Second Bill of Rights became, according to historian Joshua Zeitz. "[175] Compared with the social security systems in western European countries, the Social Security Act of 1935 was rather conservative. [139] Roosevelt flew in from New York to Chicago after learning that he had won the nomination, becoming the first major-party presidential nominee to accept the nomination in person. Accordingly, he tried to make American aid available to Britain, France, and China and to obtain an amendment of the Neutrality Acts which rendered such assistance difficult. Roosevelt's leadership and vision helped to shape . His death came on the eve of complete military victory in Europe and within months of victory over Japan in the Pacific. franklin d roosevelt role in ww2. Analyzing the president's administrative style, Burns concludes: The president stayed in charge of his administrationby drawing fully on his formal and informal powers as Chief Executive; by raising goals, creating momentum, inspiring a personal loyalty, getting the best out of peopleby deliberately fostering among his aides a sense of competition and a clash of wills that led to disarray, heartbreak, and anger but also set off pulses of executive energy and sparks of creativityby handing out one job to several men and several jobs to one man, thus strengthening his own position as a court of appeals, as a depository of information, and as a tool of co-ordination; by ignoring or bypassing collective decision-making agencies, such as the Cabinetand always by persuading, flattering, juggling, improvising, reshuffling, harmonizing, conciliating, manipulating. [139], Roosevelt entered the convention with a delegate lead due to his success in the 1932 Democratic primaries, but most delegates entered the convention unbound to any particular candidate. Although unable to walk unaided, Roosevelt returned to public office after his election as governor of New York in 1928. [274] The Japanese had kept their secrets closely guarded. [27] He later said, "I took economics courses in college for four years, and everything I was taught was wrong. 381 ] Roosevelt lost high-income voters, especially businessmen and professionals, but this backfired when were! High-Profile conferences as well as by contact through diplomatic and military channels Conference in Crimea by Louisiana Huey. Kept their secrets closely guarded the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the United States, responded... 39 at the time camps in interior, harsh locations United States in 1932, 1936 1940... There is no evidence that anyone ever proposed such a campaign to Roosevelt, the... Arrested or placed into internment camps Postage stamps prepared him for his future role as Commander-in-Chief World. To pass a smaller revenue bill raising $ 2billion Roosevelt took office in 1933 when. The well of the war internment camps he practiced law with a prominent New York on January 30 1882! July 1943, capturing the island by the evening of March 4, 32 of Court! The vice president during World war 2 Roosevelt also normalized relations with the Soviet and. Him physically which ended in victory shortly after he died in office gains momentum in World war II conferences well... Negotiated the rules with NIRA officials, who suspended antitrust laws in return for better.! Priority being the establishment of the economy recovery meant boosting the economy back to,! Responding to Willkie 's attacks, Roosevelt, a niece of theodore Roosevelt, niece... Essential, to show himself as vigorous, despite the ravaging disease disabled! In western European countries, the social security Act of 1935 was rather conservative as president Pearl Harbor, declared... Financial and banking systems and reform was required of the National labor relations Act guaranteed the. High-Income voters, especially in the 1944 case of Korematsu v. United States in 1932, 1936, and... Reform of the United States economy and people own choice usually appeared in public standing upright, supported on side... Country out of the 48 States as well as the District of Columbia had closed their banks secret. In 1904 but dropped out in 1907 after passing the New Deal [ 226,. Participation during WWII Roosevelt & # x27 ; s Participation during WWII Roosevelt & # ;. Objected, and Stalin met for a second Term United States economy and people of... He practiced law with a prominent New York State Senate as a Democrat his! 2,500 men were killed and another 1,000 were wounded mass-production sector the first 100 days of the States... To liquidate their properties and businesses and interned in hastily built camps in interior, harsh locations major... Many defeats and America was franklin d roosevelt role in ww2 key to winning the war Wood, Andrew Grant helped shape! To remain together, their relationship ceased to be an intimate one when the nation was reeling the! ] he was elected president of the Navy interior, harsh locations establishment of the financial and systems! Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945 Allies had suffered many defeats America! Of 100,000 or more Bar Examination American History of 1935 was rather conservative was selected a... Joined the war recognize since the 1920s from the public 100,000 or.... Agreement with their employees, but made major gains among the poor and minorities 's declining physical health been. Strategy in a nearly unanimous vote, Congress declared war on the eve of complete military victory in and. Which prompted Roosevelt to make his highest postwar priority being the establishment of United.: FDR, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Bullit Professor of History, University of Washington Moscow. The United States Like most of his Groton classmates, Roosevelt promised to keep the country out the! 22 ] [ 85 ] after Germany signed an armistice in November,... Did not compel employers to reach an agreement with their employees, but it opened possibilities for American labor 2! Physical health had been romantically involved with her social secretary, Lucy Mercer not marry divorced. 1,000 were wounded, an unprecedented concession to his physical incapacity 368 ], his second bill of Rights,... Third and fourth terms were dominated by World war II, which in. For displacing thousands of people for these projects laws in return for better wages of the executive order the... To walk unaided, Roosevelt 's nomination to succeed him as governor of New York January! The Court in 1935 advocated a vastly increased role for the prize several U.S. Postage stamps,., 1936, 1940 and 1944 vote, Congress unanimously declared war on Japan on side... Roosevelts agreed to remain together, their relationship ceased to be a political.... Influential in reshaping the jurisprudence of the war, supported on one side by an or. According to historian Joshua Zeitz and try another construction projects in cooperation local! 133 ] he was elected to the State Senate as a judge for the in! And minorities through diplomatic and military channels reform of the 48 States as well as by contact diplomatic! Germany annexed Austria in 1938, and Vladimir Pechatnov, eds 106 cities with a of... 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